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How Most Religions Start

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Thereafter, Christians had generally been permitted to visit the sacred places in the Holy Land until 1071, when the closed Christian pilgrimages and assailed the Byzantines, defeating them at the. There is no factual evidence of this. See Mark 16:1-20; Matthew 28:1-20; Luke 24; and John 20.

The sacred text of Christianity is the Bible, including both the Hebrew scriptures also known as the Old Testament and the New Testament. The tribes that invaded southern Britain some time after the Roman abandonment, were initially pagan, but converted to Christianity by on the mission of. According to a tradition recorded by Eusebius and Epiphanius, the Jerusalem church at the outbreak of the 66—73 AD.

Jewish-Christian Relations - Christianity wasn't just randomly started.

This article may be to read and navigate comfortably. Please consider content into sub-articles, it, or adding or removing. August 2018 The history of Christianity concerns the , , and the with its various , from the to the. Since the , Christianity has expanded throughout the world and become the world's largest religion. Today there are more than two billion Christians worldwide. Main article: During its early history, Christianity grew from a to a religion that existed across the entire Greco-Roman world and beyond. The ended in AD 324 when decreed tolerance for the religion. He then called the in AD 325, beginning the period of the. Apostolic Church Spread of Christianity in the eastern Mediterranean region by The Apostolic Church was the community led by the , and to some degree, Jesus's. While the is disputed by critics, the is the major of information for this period. Acts gives a history of the from this commission in to the spread of the religion among the Gentiles and the eastern by and others. The first Christians were essentially all ethnically Jewish or Jewish. In other words, Jesus preached to the Jewish people and called from them his first disciples, see for example. Circumcision in particular was considered repulsive by and while were labelled , see. The actions of , at the conversion of , seemed to indicate that circumcision and food laws did not apply to Gentiles, and this was agreed to at the apostolic. The doctrines of the apostles brought the Early Church into conflict with some Jewish religious authorities. This eventually led to their expulsion from the , according to one theory of the. Acts records the martyrdom of the Christian leaders, and. Thus, Christianity acquired an identity distinct from , but this distinction was not recognised all at once by the , see for details. The sources for the beliefs of the apostolic community include the Gospels and. The very earliest accounts of belief are contained in these texts, such as early and , as well as accounts of the , the empty tomb, and Resurrection appearances; some of these are dated to the 30s or 40s AD, originating within the. According to a tradition recorded by Eusebius and Epiphanius, the Jerusalem church at the outbreak of the 66—73 AD. Post-Apostolic Church See also: According to the New Testament, Christians were subject to various from the beginning. This involved even death for Christians such as and. Larger-scale persecutions followed at the hands of the authorities of the , beginning with the year 64, when, as reported by the historian , the blamed them for that year's. According to Church tradition, it was under Nero's persecution that and were each martyred in Rome. Similarly, several of the writings mention persecutions and stress endurance through them. Early Christians suffered sporadic persecutions as the result of local pagan populations putting pressure on the imperial authorities to take action against the Christians in their midst, who were thought to bring misfortune by their refusal to honour the gods. The last and most severe persecution organised by the imperial authorities was the , 303—311. Reasons for the spread of Christianity Spread of Christianity in 100 C. In spite of these sometimes intense persecutions, the Christian religion continued its spread throughout the. There is no agreement on how Christianity managed to spread so successfully prior to the and the. In , argues that Christianity triumphed over chiefly because it improved the lives of its adherents in various ways. Another factor was the way in which Christianity combined its promise of a general with the that true depended on the survival of the body, with Christianity adding practical explanations of how this was going to actually happen at the. For , the rapid progression of Christianity was explained by two factors: translations of the New Testament and the composed in defence of Christianity. But this emerged slowly and at different times for different locations. Clement, a 1st-century bishop of Rome, refers to the leaders of the Corinthian church in as bishops and presbyters interchangeably. The New Testament writers also use the terms overseer and elders interchangeably and as synonyms. Post-apostolic bishops of importance include , , and. These men reportedly knew and studied under the apostles personally and are therefore called. Each Christian community also had , as was the case with Jewish communities, who were also ordained and assisted the bishop. As Christianity spread, especially in rural areas, the presbyters exercised more responsibilities and took distinctive shape as priests. Lastly, also performed certain duties, such as tending to the poor and sick. In the 2nd century, an episcopal structure becomes more visible, and in that century this structure was supported by teaching on , where a bishop becomes the spiritual successor of the previous bishop in a line tracing back to the apostles themselves. The diversity of early Christianity can be documented from the New Testament record itself. The admits conflicts between Hebrews and Hellenists, and Jewish Christians and Gentile Christians, and and. The letters of Paul, Peter, John, and Jude all testify to intra-Church conflicts over both leadership and theology. In a response to the teaching, created the first document describing what is now called. Early Christian writings Main article: As Christianity spread, it acquired certain members from well-educated circles of the Hellenistic world; they sometimes became bishops, but not always. These authors are known as the , and study of them is called. Notable early Fathers include , , , , , , and. Early art Main article: Christian art only emerged relatively late, and the first known Christian images emerge from about 200 AD, though there is some literary evidence that small domestic images were used earlier. The oldest known Christian paintings are from the Roman , dated to about AD 200, and the oldest Christian sculptures are from , dating to the beginning of the 3rd century. Although many Hellenised Jews seem, as at the , to have had images of religious figures, the no doubt retained some effect, although never proclaimed by theologians. This early rejection of images, and the necessity to hide Christian practise from persecution, leaves us with few archaeological records regarding early Christianity and its evolution. Early heresies Main article: The itself speaks of the importance of maintaining correct doctrine and refuting heresies, showing the antiquity of the concern. Because of the proscription against , Christianity has always been occupied with the interpretation of the faith. Indeed, one of the main roles of the in the early Church was to determine and retain important correct beliefs, and refute contrarian opinions, known as. As there were sometimes differing opinions among the bishops on new questions, defining orthodoxy would occupy the Church for some time. The earliest controversies were often in nature; that is, they were related to Jesus's divinity or humanity. Many groups, such as the , held , maintaining that reality was composed into two radically opposing parts: matter, seen as evil, and spirit, seen as good. Most scholars agree that the Bible teaches that both the material and the spiritual worlds were created by God and were therefore both good. The development of doctrine, the position of orthodoxy, and the relationship between the various opinions is a matter of continuing academic debate. Since most Christians today subscribe to the doctrines established by the , modern Christian theologians tend to regard the early debates as a against a minority of heretics. Other scholars, drawing upon distinctions between , , and other groups such as and , argue that was always fragmented, with contemporaneous competing beliefs. Biblical canon See also: The Biblical canon is the set of books Christians regard as divinely inspired and thus constituting the Christian Bible. Though the Early Church used the Old Testament according to the canon of the LXX , the apostles did not otherwise leave a defined set of new ; instead the. The writings attributed to the apostles circulated amongst the earliest Christian communities. The were circulating in collected form by the end of the 1st century AD. A four gospel canon the Tetramorph was in place by the time of Irenaeus, c. In contrast, the major writings and most of what is now the were Homologoumena, or universally acknowledged for a long time, since the middle of the 2nd century or before. Likewise the shows that by 200 there existed a set of Christian writings similar to the current New Testament. In his Easter letter of 367, , Bishop of Alexandria, gave the earliest preserved list of exactly the books that would become the canon. The African , in 393, approved the New Testament, as it stands today, a decision repeated by the and the. These councils were under the authority of , who regarded the canon as already closed. Likewise, ' commissioning of the Latin Vulgate edition of the , c. In 405, sent a list of the sacred books to , a Gallic bishop. Nonetheless, a full dogmatic articulation of the canon was not made until the 1546 for Roman Catholicism, the 1563 for the , the 1647 for , and the 1672 for. Icon depicting centre and the of the 325 holding the. Galerius reigned for another 2 years and was succeeded by an emperor with distinctively pro Christian leanings,. The Emperor was exposed to Christianity by his mother,. At the in 312, Constantine commanded his troops to adorn their shields with the Christian symbol in accordance with a vision that he had had the night before. Victory allowed him to claim the emperorship in the West. In 313, he issued the , officially legalizing Christian worship. How much Christianity Constantine adopted at this point is difficult to discern. Roman coins minted up to eight years later still bore the images of Roman gods. Nonetheless, his accession of was a turning point for the Christian Church. Constantine supported the Church financially, built various basilicas, granted privileges e. Between 324 and 330, Constantine built, virtually from scratch, a new imperial capital that came to be named for him:. It had overtly Christian architecture, contained churches within the city walls, and had no pagan temples. In accordance with a prevailing custom, Constantine was baptised on his deathbed. Constantine also played an active role in the leadership of the Church. In 316, he acted as a judge in a North African dispute concerning the controversy. More significantly, in 325 he summoned the , the first. Constantine thus established a precedent for the emperor as responsible to for the spiritual health of their subjects, and thus with a duty to maintain orthodoxy. The emperor was to enforce doctrine, root out heresy, and uphold ecclesiastical unity. Constantine's son's successor, his nephew , under the influence of his adviser , renounced Christianity and embraced a and mystical form of paganism shocking the Christian establishment. He began reopening pagan temples, modifying them to resemble Christian traditions such as the episcopal structure and public charity previously unknown in Roman paganism. Julian's short reign ended when he died while campaigning in the East. Later wrote volumes of theological texts, including , , , , , and others. Some, such as and , suffered exile, persecution, or martyrdom from Arian. Arianism and the first Ecumenical Councils Further information: A popular doctrine of the 4th century was , the denial of the divinity of Christ, as propounded by. Though this doctrine was condemned as heresy and eventually eliminated by the Roman Church it remained popular underground for some time. In the late 4th century , a Roman bishop and an Arian, was appointed as the first bishop to the , the Germanic peoples in much of Europe at the borders of and within the Empire. Ulfilas spread Arian Christianity among the Goths firmly establishing the faith among many of the Germanic tribes, thus helping to keep them culturally distinct. During this age, the first Ecumenical Councils were convened. They were mostly concerned with Christological disputes. The 325 and the 381 resulted in condemning Arian teachings as heresy and producing the. Christianity as Roman state religion 380 An showing a with towers, mounted with , 5th century AD, On 27 February 380, with the put forth under , the Roman Empire officially adopted Christianity as its state religion. Prior to this date, 337-361 and 364—378 had personally favoured Arian or forms of Christianity, but Valens' successor supported the Trinitarian doctrine as expounded in the. After its establishment, the Church adopted the same organisational boundaries as the Empire: geographical provinces, called dioceses, corresponding to imperial governmental territorial division. The bishops, who were located in major urban centres as per pre-legalisation tradition, thus oversaw each diocese. Among the sees, came to hold special eminence: , , , , and. The prestige of most of these sees depended in part on their apostolic founders, from whom the bishops were therefore the spiritual successors. Though the bishop of Rome was still held to be the , Constantinople was second in precedence as the new capital of the empire. Nestorianism and the Sasanian Empire Largely extinct and its largest extent during the Middle Ages. During the early 5th century the had taught a Christological perspective stating that Christ's divine and human nature were distinct persons. A particular consequence of this perspective was that Mary could not be properly called the mother of God, but could only be considered the mother of Christ. The most widely known proponent of this viewpoint was the Patriarch of Constantinople. Since referring to Mary as the mother of God had become popular in many parts of the Church this became a divisive issue. The Roman Emperor called for the 431 , with the intention of settling the issue. The councils ultimately rejected Nestorius' view. Many churches who followed the Nestorian viewpoint broke away from the Roman Church, causing a major schism. The Nestorian churches were persecuted and many followers fled to the Sasanian Empire where they were accepted. The had many Christian converts early in its history tied closely to the branch of Christianity. The Empire was officially and maintained a strict adherence to this faith in part to distinguish itself from the religion of the Roman Empire originally the pagan Roman religion and then Christianity. Christianity became tolerated in the Sasanian Empire and as the Roman Empire increasingly exiled heretics during the 4th and 6th centuries, the Sasanian Christian community grew rapidly. By the end of the 5th century the Persian Church was firmly established and had become independent of the Roman Church. This church evolved into what is today known as the. Miaphysitism Further information: In 451 the was held to further clarify the Christological issues surrounding Nestorianism. The council ultimately stated that Christ's divine and human nature were separate but both part of a single entity, a viewpoint rejected by many churches who called themselves. The resulting schism created a communion of churches, including the Armenian, Syrian, and Egyptian churches. Though efforts were made at reconciliation in the next few centuries the schism remained permanent resulting in what is today known as. Monasticism Main article: is a form of asceticism whereby one renounces worldly pursuits and goes off alone as a hermit or joins a tightly organized community. It began early in the Church as a family of similar traditions, modelled upon Scriptural examples and ideals, and with roots in certain strands of Judaism. Eremetic monks, or , live in solitude, whereas live in communities, generally in a , under a rule or code of practice and are governed by an. Originally, all Christian monks were hermits, following the example of. However, the need for some form of organised spiritual guidance lead in 318 to organise his many followers in what was to become the first monastery. Soon, similar institutions were established throughout the Egyptian desert as well as the rest of the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Women were especially attracted to the movement. Central figures in the development of monasticism were in the East and, in the West, , who created the famous , which would become the most common rule throughout the Middle Ages, and starting point for other monastic rules. See also: , , and The transition into the Middle Ages was a gradual and localised process. Rural areas rose as power centres whilst urban areas declined. Although a greater number of Christians remained in the Greek areas , important developments were underway in the Latin areas and each took on distinctive shapes. The , the Popes, were forced to adapt to drastically changing circumstances. In the East the Church maintained its structure and character and evolved more slowly. Western missionary expansion The stepwise loss of dominance, replaced with and kingdoms, coincided with early missionary efforts into areas not controlled by the collapsing empire. Already as early as in the 5th century, missionary activities from into the Celtic areas current , Ireland and produced competing early traditions of , that was later reintegrated under the. Prominent missionaries were Saints , and. The tribes that invaded southern Britain some time after the Roman abandonment, were initially pagan, but converted to Christianity by on the mission of. Soon becoming a missionary centre, missionaries such as , , and would begin converting their relatives in. The largely Christian Gallo-Roman inhabitants of modern France were overrun by the in the early 5th century. The native inhabitants were persecuted until the Frankish king converted from paganism to in 496. Clovis insisted that his fellow nobles follow suit, strengthening his newly established kingdom by uniting the faith of the rulers with that of the ruled. After the rise of the and the stabilizing political conditions, the Western part of the Church increased the missionary activities, supported by the kingdom as a means to pacify troublesome neighbour peoples. After the foundation of a church in by , backlashes occurred when the pagan king destroyed many Christian centres between 716 and 719. In 717, the English missionary was sent to aid Willibrord, re-establishing churches in Frisia continuing missions in Germany. Byzantine iconoclasm Main article: Following a series of heavy military reverses against the , the emerged in the early 8th century. In the 720s the Byzantine Emperor banned the pictorial representation of Christ, saints, and biblical scenes. In the West, held two synods at Rome and condemned Leo's actions. The Byzantine , held at in 754, ruled that holy portraits were heretical. The movement destroyed much of the Christian church's early artistic history. The iconoclastic movement itself was later defined as heretical in 787 under the , but enjoyed a brief resurgence between 815 and 842. See also: , , , , and Carolingian Renaissance The was a period of intellectual and cultural revival of literature, arts, and scriptural studies during the late and , mostly during the reigns of and , rulers. To address the problems of illiteracy among clergy and court scribes, Charlemagne founded schools and attracted the most learned men from all of Europe to his court. Monastic Reform A view of the Abbey of Cluny. Cluny From the onward most of the monasteries in the West were of the. Owing to the stricter adherence to a reformed , the abbey of became the acknowledged leader of western monasticism from the later 10th century. Cluny created a large, federated order in which the administrators of subsidiary houses served as deputies of the abbot of Cluny and answered to him. The Cluniac spirit was a revitalising influence on the Norman church, at its height from the second half of the through the early. Cîteaux The next wave of monastic reform came with the. The first Cistercian was founded in 1098, at. The keynote of Cistercian life was a return to a literal observance of the , rejecting the developments of the. The most striking feature in the reform was the return to manual labour, and especially to field-work. Inspired by , the primary builder of the Cistercians, they became the main force of technological diffusion in medieval Europe. By the end of the the Cistercian houses numbered 500, and at its height in the the order claimed to have close to 750 houses. Commonly known as friars, mendicants live under a monastic rule with traditional vows of , but they emphasise preaching, missionary activity, and education, in a secluded monastery. Beginning in the , the order was instituted by the followers of , and thereafter the was begun by. Investiture Controversy at the gate of Canossa, by August von Heyden. The , or Lay investiture controversy, was the most significant powers in. It began as a dispute in the 11th century between the , and concerning who would appoint bishops. The end of lay investiture threatened to undercut the power of the Empire and the ambitions of noblemen. Bishops collected revenues from estates attached to their bishopric. Noblemen who held lands fiefdoms hereditarily passed those lands on within their family. However, when a bishop died it was the king's right to appoint a successor. So, while a king had little recourse in preventing noblemen from consolidating power via inheritance and , he could keep control of the domain of his bishops. Kings would bestow bishoprics to members of noble families whose friendship he wished to secure. Furthermore, if a king left a bishopric vacant, he collected the estates' revenues until a bishop was appointed, when in theory he was to repay the earnings. The infrequent nature of this repayment was an obvious source of dispute. The Church wanted to end lay investiture because of this practice and others such as. Thus, the Investiture Contest was part of the Church's attempt to reform the episcopate and provide better. Pope Gregory VII issued the , which declared that the pope alone could appoint or depose bishops, or translate them to other sees. Henry IV's rejection of the decree lead to his excommunication and a ducal revolt. Eventually Henry received absolution after dramatic public penance barefoot in Alpine snow and cloaked in a hair-shirt see , though the revolt and conflict of investiture continued. A similar controversy occurred in England between and , Archbishop of Canterbury, over investiture and ecclesiastical revenues during an episcopal vacancy. The English dispute was resolved by the Concordat of London, 1107, where the king renounced his claim to invest bishops but continued to require an oath of fealty from them. This was a partial model for the Pactum Calixtinum , which resolved the Imperial investiture controversy with a compromise that allowed secular authorities some measure of control but granted the selection of bishops to their. As a symbol of the compromise, lay authorities invested bishops with their secular authority symbolised by the lance, and ecclesiastical authorities invested bishops with their spiritual authority symbolised by the and the. Medieval Inquisition Main article: The is a series of Inquisitions Church bodies charged with suppressing from around 1184, including the Episcopal Inquisition 1184—1230s and later the Papal Inquisition 1230s. It was in response to movements within Europe considered or to , in particular the and the in southern France and northern Italy. These were the first inquisition movements of many that would follow. The inquisitions in combination with the were fairly successful in ending heresy. Madden has written about popular myths regarding the Inquisition. Ansgar, a native of , was sent with a group of monks to Jutland Denmark in around 820 at the time of the pro-Christian Jutish king Harald Klak. The mission was only partially successful, and Ansgar returned two years later to Germany, after Harald had been driven out of his kingdom. In 829 Ansgar went to on , Sweden, with his aide friar Witmar, and a small congregation was formed in 831 which included the king's own steward Hergeir. Conversion was slow, however, and most Scandinavian lands were only completely Christianised at the time of rulers such as of Denmark and in the years following AD 1000. Conversion of the Slavs and monument on. Though by 800 Western Europe was ruled entirely by Christian kings, East and Central Europe remained an area of missionary activity. For example, in the 9th century SS. The in 988 spread Christianity throughout , establishing Christianity among , and Russia. In the 9th and 10th centuries, Christianity made great inroads into , including Bulgaria and. The evangelisation, or Christianisation, of the Slavs was initiated by one of Byzantium's most learned churchmen—the Patriarch Photius. The Byzantine emperor Michael III chose Cyril and Methodius in response to a request from Rastislav, the king of Moravia who wanted missionaries that could minister to the Moravians in their own language. The two brothers spoke the local vernacular and translated the Bible and many of the prayer books. As the translations prepared by them were copied by speakers of other dialects, the hybrid literary language was created. Methodius later went on to convert the. Some of the disciples returned to Bulgaria where they were welcomed by the Bulgarian who viewed the Slavonic liturgy as a way to counteract Byzantine influence in the country. In a short time the disciples of Cyril and Methodius managed to prepare and instruct the future Slavic clergy into the and the biblical texts. Bulgaria was officially recognised as a patriarchate by Constantinople in 927, Serbia in 1346, and Russia in 1589. All these nations, however, had been converted long before these dates. The missionaries to the East and South Slavs had great success in part because they used the people's native language rather than as the Roman priests did, or Greek. Mission to Great Moravia Conversion of Moravia under Ratislav When king asked Byzantium for teachers who could minister to the Moravians in their own language, Byzantine emperor Michael III chose two brothers,. As their mother was a Slav from the hinterlands of Thessaloniki, the two brothers had been raised speaking the local vernacular. Once commissioned, they immediately set about creating an alphabet, the. They then translated the Scripture and the liturgy into Slavonic. This Slavic dialect became the basis of which later evolved into which is the common liturgical language still used by the Russian Orthodox Church and other Slavic Orthodox Christians. Conversion of Bulgaria Main article: Bulgaria was a pagan country since its establishment in 681 until 864 when 852—889 converted to Christianity. The reasons for that decision were complex; the most important factors were that Bulgaria was situated between two powerful Christian empires, Byzantium and ; Christian doctrine particularly favoured the position of the monarch as God's representative on Earth, while Boris also saw it as a way to overcome the differences between Bulgars and Slavs. In 885 some of the disciples of Cyril and Methodius, including , and Angelaruis, returned to Bulgaria where they were welcomed by Boris I who viewed the Slavonic liturgy as a way to counteract Byzantine influence in the country. In a short time they managed to prepare and instruct the future Bulgarian clergy into the and the biblical texts. As a result of the in AD 893, Bulgaria expelled its Greek clergy and proclaimed the as the official language of the church and the state. The success of the conversion of the Bulgarians facilitated the conversion of other East , most notably the , predecessors of , Russians, and Ukrainians, as well as. By the beginning of the 11th century most of the pagan Slavic world, including Rus', Bulgaria and Serbia, had been converted to Byzantine Christianity. The traditional event associated with the conversion of Rus' is the baptism of Vladimir of Kiev in 989. However, Christianity is documented to have predated this event in the city of Kiev and in Georgia. Today the is the largest of the Orthodox Churches. See also: , , , and Growing tensions between East and West The cracks and fissures in Christian unity which led to the started to become evident as early as the. Cultural, political, and linguistic differences were often mixed with the theological, leading to schism. The transfer of the Roman capital to Constantinople inevitably brought mistrust, rivalry, and even jealousy to the relations of the two great sees, Rome and Constantinople. It was easy for Rome to be jealous of Constantinople at a time when it was rapidly losing its political prominence. Estrangement was also helped along by the German invasions in the West, which effectively weakened contacts. The rise of Islam with its conquest of most of the Mediterranean coastline not to mention the arrival of the pagan Slavs in the Balkans at the same time further intensified this separation by driving a physical wedge between the two worlds. The once homogeneous unified world of the Mediterranean was fast vanishing. Communication between the by the 7th century had become dangerous and practically ceased. Two basic problems were involved: the nature of the and the theological implications of adding a clause to the , known as the clause. These doctrinal issues were first openly discussed in Photius's patriarchate. By the 5th century, Christendom was divided into a pentarchy of five sees with Rome accorded a primacy. The four Eastern sees of the pentarchy considered this determined by canonical decision and not entailing hegemony of any one local church or patriarchate over the others. However, Rome began to interpret her primacy in terms of sovereignty, as a God-given right involving universal jurisdiction in the Church. The collegial and conciliar nature of the Church, in effect, was gradually abandoned in favour of supremacy of unlimited papal power over the entire Church. These ideas were finally given systematic expression in the West during the movement of the 11th century. The Eastern churches viewed Rome's understanding of the nature of episcopal power as being in direct opposition to the Church's essentially conciliar structure and thus saw the two ecclesiologies as mutually antithetical. For them, specifically, could never be the exclusive prerogative of any one bishop. All bishops must, like St. Peter, confess Jesus as the Christ and, as such, all are Peter's successors. The churches of the East gave the Roman See primacy but not supremacy, the Pope being the first among equals but not infallible and not with absolute authority. This too developed gradually and entered the Creed over time. In the final analysis, only another ecumenical council could introduce such an alteration. Indeed, the councils, which drew up the original Creed, had expressly forbidden any subtraction or addition to the text. In addition to this ecclesiological issue, the Eastern Church also considered the Filioque clause unacceptable on dogmatic grounds. Theologically, the Latin interpolation was unacceptable since it implied that the Spirit now had two sources of origin and procession, the Father and the Son, rather than the Father alone. Photian schism Main article: In the 9th century AD, a controversy arose between Eastern Byzantine, Greek Orthodox and Western Latin, Roman Catholic Christianity that was precipitated by the opposition of the Roman to the appointment by the Byzantine of to the position of patriarch of Constantinople. Photios was refused an apology by the pope for previous points of dispute between the East and West. Photios refused to accept the supremacy of the pope in Eastern matters or accept the Filioque clause. The Latin delegation at the council of his consecration pressed him to accept the clause in order to secure their support. That had been added to the by the Latin church, which was later the theological breaking point in the ultimate Great in the 11th century. Photios did provide concession on the issue of jurisdictional rights concerning Bulgaria and the papal legates made do with his return of Bulgaria to Rome. This concession, however, was purely nominal, as Bulgaria's return to the Byzantine rite in 870 had already secured for it an autocephalous church. Without the consent of , the papacy was unable to enforce any of its claims. East-West Schism 1054 The East-West Schism The , or Great Schism, separated the Church into Western Latin and Eastern Greek branches, i. It was the first major division since certain groups in the East rejected the decrees of the see , and was far more significant. Though normally dated to 1054, the East-West Schism was actually the result of an extended period of estrangement between Latin and Greek Christendom over the nature of papal primacy and certain doctrinal matters like the Filioque, but intensified by cultural and linguistic differences. More recently, in 1965 by the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople, though schism remains. Both groups are descended from the Early Church, both acknowledge the of each other's bishops, and the validity of each other's. Though both acknowledge the primacy of the Bishop of Rome, Eastern Orthodoxy understands this as a primacy of honour with limited or no ecclesiastical authority in other dioceses. The Orthodox East perceived the Papacy as taking on monarchical characteristics that were not in line with the church's tradition. The final breach is often considered to have arisen after the capture and sacking of Constantinople by the in 1204. Crusades against Christians in the East by Roman Catholic crusaders was not exclusive to the Mediterranean though see also the and the. The sacking of and the and establishment of the as a seeming attempt to supplant the Orthodox in 1204 is viewed with some rancour to the present day. Many in the East saw the actions of the West as a prime determining factor in the weakening of Byzantium. This led to the Empire's eventual conquest and fall to Islam. In 2004, extended a formal apology for the sacking of Constantinople in 1204; the apology was formally accepted by. Many things that were stolen during this time: holy , riches, and many other items, are still held in various Western European cities, particularly , Italy. Crusades The Crusader states of Jerusalem Generally, the Crusades refer to the campaigns in the Holy Land against Muslim forces sponsored by the Papacy. There were other crusades against Islamic forces in southern Spain, southern Italy, and Sicily, as well as the campaigns of against pagan strongholds in North-eastern Europe see. A few crusades were waged within Christendom against groups that were considered heretical and schismatic also see the and the. The Holy Land had been part of the Roman Empire, and thus Byzantine Empire, until the Islamic conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries. Thereafter, Christians had generally been permitted to visit the sacred places in the Holy Land until 1071, when the closed Christian pilgrimages and assailed the Byzantines, defeating them at the. Emperor asked for aid from 1088—1099 for help against Islamic aggression. He probably expected money from the pope for the hiring of mercenaries. Instead, Urban II called upon the knights of Christendom in a speech made at the on 27 November 1095, combining the idea of pilgrimage to the Holy Land with that of waging a holy war against infidels. The captured Antioch in 1099 and then Jerusalem. The occurred in 1145 when was retaken by Islamic forces. Jerusalem would be held until 1187 and the , famous for the battles between and. The , begun by in 1202, intended to retake the Holy Land but was soon subverted by Venetians who used the forces to sack the Christian city of. When the crusaders arrived in Constantinople, they sacked the city and other parts of Asia Minor and established the of Constantinople in Greece and Asia Minor. This was effectively the last crusade sponsored by the papacy, with later crusades being sponsored by individuals. Jerusalem was held by the crusaders for nearly a century, and other strongholds in the Near East would remain in Christian possession much longer. The crusades in the Holy Land ultimately failed to establish permanent Christian kingdoms. Islamic expansion into Europe would renew and remain a threat for centuries culminating in the campaigns of in the 16th century. Crusades in southern Spain, southern Italy, and Sicily eventually lead to the demise of Islamic power in Europe. The Teutonic Knights expanded Christian domains in Eastern Europe, and the much less frequent crusades within Christendom, such as the , achieved their goal of maintaining doctrinal unity. Hesychast Controversy Gregory Palamas. In 1337 —a mystical teaching at came under attack from , an abbot in Constantinople. Barlaam propounded a more intellectual and propositional approach to the knowledge of God than the Hesychasts taught. Hesychasm is a form of constant purposeful prayer or experiential prayer, explicitly referred to as focusing on the idea of stillness and the characteristic mystical idea of light as the vehicle for knowing God. Several synods took one position or the other until in 1351 at a synod under the presidency of the Emperor , Hesychast doctrine was established as the doctrine of the Orthodox Church. See also: , , , , and Fall of Constantinople In 1453, Constantinople fell to the. By this time Egypt had been under Muslim control for some seven centuries, but Orthodoxy was very strong in Russia which had recently acquired an status; and thus Moscow called itself the , as the cultural heir of Constantinople. Under Ottoman rule, the acquired substantial power as an autonomous. Eastern Christians fleeing Constantinople, and the Greek manuscripts they carried with them, is one of the factors that prompted the literary in the West at about this time. Isolation from the West As a result of the Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, and the , the entire Orthodox communion of the Balkans and the Near East became suddenly isolated from the West. For the next four hundred years, it would be confined within a hostile Islamic world, with which it had little in common religiously or culturally. The was the only part of the Orthodox communion which remained outside the control of the Ottoman Empire. It is, in part, due to this geographical and intellectual confinement that the voice of Eastern Orthodoxy was not heard during the in 16th-century Europe. As a result, this important theological debate often seems strange and distorted to the Orthodox. They never took part in it and thus neither Reformation nor is part of their theological framework. Religious rights under the Ottoman Empire receives from 1454 to 1464 The new that conquered the Byzantine Empire followed Islamic law when dealing with the conquered Christian population. Christians were officially tolerated as. As such, the Church's canonical and hierarchical organisation were not significantly disrupted and its administration continued to function. One of the first things that did was to allow the Church to elect a new patriarch,. Because makes no distinction between nationality and religion, all Christians, regardless of their language or nationality, were considered a single , or nation. The patriarch, as the highest-ranking hierarch, was thus invested with civil and religious authority and made , head of the entire Christian Orthodox population. This meant that all Orthodox Churches within Ottoman territory were under the control of Constantinople. However, these rights and privileges, including freedom of worship and religious organisation, were often established in principle but seldom corresponded to reality. Christians were viewed as , and the legal protections they depended upon were subject to the whims of the and the. Under Ottoman occupation the Church could no longer bear witness to Christ. Christian missionary work among Muslims was illegal and dangerous, whereas conversion to Islam was entirely legal and permissible. Converts to Islam who returned to Orthodoxy were put to death as apostates. No new churches could be built and even the ringing of church bells was prohibited. The and the , which had been Christian churches for nearly a millennium, were converted into mosques. Education of the clergy and the Christian population either ceased altogether or was reduced to the most rudimentary elements. Violent persecutions of Christians were common, and reached their climax in the , , and genocides. Corruption The Orthodox Church found itself subject to the Turkish system of corruption. The patriarchal throne was frequently sold to the highest bidder, while new patriarchal investiture was accompanied by heavy payment to the government. In order to recoup their losses, patriarchs and bishops taxed the local parishes and their clergy. Few patriarchs between the 15th and the 19th centuries died a natural death while in office. The forced abdications, exiles, hangings, drownings, and poisonings of patriarchs are well documented. The hierarchy's positions were often dangerous as well. The hanging of patriarch from the gate of the patriarchate on Easter Sunday 1821 was accompanied by the execution of two metropolitans and twelve bishops. See also: , , and Avignon Papacy 1309—1378 The , sometimes referred to as the Babylonian Captivity, was a period from 1309 to 1378 during which seven resided in , in modern-day France. The period was one of conflict and controversy during which French Kings held considerable sway over the Papacy and rulers across Europe felt sidelined by the new French-centric papacy. A met in Rome and elected , an Italian. Urban soon alienated the French cardinals, and they held a second conclave electing to succeed Gregory XI, beginning the Western Schism. Western Schism 1378—1416 Map showing support for Avignon red and Rome blue during the Western Schism; this breakdown is accurate until the 1409 , which created a third line of claimants. The , or Papal Schism, was a prolonged period of crisis in Latin Christendom from 1378 to 1416, when there were two or more claimants to the See of Rome and there was conflict concerning the rightful holder of the papacy. The conflict was political, rather than doctrinal, in nature. In 1309, , due to political considerations, moved to Avignon in southern France and exercised his pontificate there. For sixty-nine years popes resided in Avignon rather than Rome. This was not only an obvious source of confusion but of political animosity as the prestige and influence of city of Rome waned without a resident pontiff. Though , a Frenchman, returned to Rome in 1378, the strife between Italian and French factions intensified, especially following his subsequent death. In 1378 the conclave, elected an Italian from Naples, ; his intransigence in office soon alienated the French cardinals, who withdrew to a conclave of their own, asserting the previous election was invalid since its decision had been made under the duress of a riotous mob. They elected one of their own, Robert of Geneva, who took the name. By 1379, he was back in the palace of popes in Avignon, while Urban VI remained in Rome. For nearly forty years, there were two papal curias and two sets of cardinals, each electing a new pope for Rome or Avignon when death created a vacancy. Each pope lobbied for support among kings and princes who played them off against each other, changing allegiance according to political advantage. In 1409, a council was convened at Pisa to resolve the issue. The council declared both existing popes to be schismatic Gregory XII from Rome, Benedict XIII from Avignon and appointed a new one, Alexander V. The existing popes refused to resign and thus there were three papal claimants. Another council was convened in 1414, the. In March 1415 the Pisan pope John XXIII fled from Constance in disguise. He was brought back a prisoner and deposed in May. The Roman pope, Gregory XII, resigned voluntarily in July. The Avignon pope, Benedict XIII, refused to come to Constance, nor would he consider resignation. The council deposed him in July 1417. The council in Constance elected as pope in November, having finally cleared the field of popes and antipopes,. John Wycliff and Jan Hus Evolution of the Hussite movements or Wyclif 1330—1384 was an English scholar and heretic best known for denouncing the corruptions of the Church, and his sponsoring the first translation of the Bible from Latin into English. He was a precursor of the Protestant Reformation. He emphasized the supremacy of the Bible, and called for a direct relationship between man and God, without interference by priests and bishops. His followers, called , faced persecution by the Church of England. They went underground for over a century and played a role in the English Reformation. Hus was executed in 1415, but his followers organized a peasants' war, 1419—1436, that was put down by the Empire with great brutality. Hus was a forerunner of the Protestant Reformation and his memory has become a powerful symbol of Czech culture in Bohemia. See also: The was a period of great cultural change and achievement, marked in Italy by a classical orientation and an increase of wealth through mercantile trade. The City of Rome, the Papacy, and the Papal States were all affected by the Renaissance. On the one hand, it was a time of great artistic patronage and architectural magnificence, where the Church pardoned such artists as , , , , , , and. On the other hand, wealthy Italian families often secured episcopal offices, including the papacy, for their own members, some of whom were known for immorality, such as and. In addition to being the head of the Church, the Pope became one of Italy's most important secular rulers, and pontiffs such as often waged campaigns to protect and expand their temporal domains. Furthermore, the popes, in a spirit of refined competition with other Italian lords, spent lavishly both on private luxuries but also on public works, repairing or building churches, bridges, and a magnificent system of that still function today. From 1505 to 1626, , perhaps the most recognised Christian church, was built on the site of the old Constantinian basilica. It was also a time of increased contact with Greek culture, opening up new avenues of learning, especially in the fields of , poetry, , , and , fostering a spirit of —all of which would influence the Church. Approximate spread of Protestantism after the Reformation, and following the Counter-Reformation. Since that time, the term has been used in many different senses, but most often as a general term refers to that is not subject to papal authority. Early protest was against corruptions such as , episcopal vacancies, and the sale of. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as and. The three most important traditions to emerge directly from the Protestant Reformation were the , , , etc. The Magisterial Reformation involved the alliance of certain theological teachers Latin: magistri such as Luther, Zwingli, Calvin, Cranmer, etc. Radical Reformers, besides forming communities outside state sanction, often employed more extreme doctrinal change, such as the rejection of tenets of the Councils of Nicaea and Chalcedon. Often the division between magisterial and radical reformers was as or more violent than the general Catholic and Protestant hostilities. The Protestant Reformation spread almost entirely within the confines of Northern Europe, but did not take hold in certain northern areas such as Ireland and parts of Germany. By far the magisterial reformers were more successful and their changes more widespread than the radical reformers. The Catholic response to the Protestant Reformation is known as the Counter Reformation, or Catholic Reformation, which resulted in a reassertion of traditional doctrines and the emergence of new religious orders aimed at both moral reform and new missionary activity. The Counter Reformation reconverted approximately 33% of Northern Europe to Catholicism and initiated missions in South and Central America, Africa, Asia, and even China and Japan. Protestant expansion outside of Europe occurred on a smaller scale through colonisation of North America and areas of Africa. Martin Luther Martin Luther, by Lucas Cranach the Elder Martin Luther was an Augustinian friar and professor at the. In 1517, he published a list of , or points to be debated, concerning the illicitness of selling indulgences. Luther had a particular disdain for Aristotelian philosophy, and as he began developing his own theology, he increasingly came into conflict with scholars, most notably. In Catholic theology, one is made righteous by a progressive infusion of grace accepted through faith and cooperated with through good works. In this process, good works are more of an unessential byproduct that contribute nothing to one's own state of righteousness. Conflict between Luther and leading theologians lead to his gradual rejection of authority of the Church hierarchy. In 1520, he was condemned for heresy by the papal bull , which he burned at Wittenberg along with books of. Ulrich Zwingli Ulrich Zwingli, wearing the scholar's cap. Ulrich Zwingli was a Swiss scholar and parish priest who was likewise influential in the beginnings of the Protestant Reformation. Zwingli claimed that his theology owed nothing to Luther, and that he had developed it in 1516, before Luther's famous protest, though his doctrine of justification was remarkably similar to that of the German friar. In 1518, Zwingli was given a post at the wealthy collegiate church of the in , where he would remain until his death at a relatively young age. Soon he had risen to prominence in the city, and when political tension developed between most of Switzerland and the Catholic. In this environment, Zwingli began preaching his version of reform, with certain points as the aforementioned doctrine of justification, but others with which Luther vehemently disagreed such as the position that veneration of icons was actually idolatry and thus a violation of the first commandment, and the denial of the in the. Soon the city council had accepted Zwingli's doctrines and Zurich became a focal point of more radical reforming movements, and certain admirers and followers of Zwingli pushed his message and reforms far further than even he had intended, such as rejecting infant baptism. This split between Luther and Zwingli formed the essence of the Protestant division between Lutheran and Reformed theology. Meanwhile, political tensions increased; Zwingli and the Zurich leadership imposed an economic blockade on the inner Catholic states of Switzerland, which led to a in which Zwingli, in full armor, was slain along with his troops. John Calvin See also: John Calvin was a French cleric and doctor of law turned Protestant reformer. Predestination was not the dominant idea in Calvin's works, but it would seemingly become so for many of his Reformed successors. English Reformation Statue of , whose emphases on reason, tolerance and inclusiveness influenced. Unlike other reform movements, the began by royal influence. However, the king came into conflict with the papacy when he wished to annul his marriage with , for which he needed papal sanction. Catherine, among many other noble relations, was the aunt of , the papacy's most significant secular supporter. The ensuing dispute eventually lead to a break from Rome and the declaration of the King of England as head of the. England would later experience periods of frenetic and eclectic reforms contrasted by periods led by staunch conservatives. Monarchs such as , , , and such as and pushed the Church of England in many directions over the course of only a few generations. Counter-Reformation 1545—1610 Main article: The Counter-Reformation, or Catholic Reformation, was the response of the Catholic Church to the Protestant Reformation. The essence of the Counter-Reformation was a renewed conviction in traditional practices and the upholding of Catholic doctrine as the source of ecclesiastic and moral reform, and the answer to halt the spread of Protestantism. Thus it experienced the founding of new religious orders, such as the , the establishment of for the proper training of priests, renewed worldwide missionary activity, and the development of new yet orthodox forms of spirituality, such as that of the and the. The entire process was spearheaded by the , which clarified and reasserted doctrine, issued dogmatic definitions, and produced the. Though Ireland, Spain, France, and elsewhere featured significantly in the Counter-Reformation, its heart was Italy and the various popes of the time, who established the the list of prohibited books and the , a system of juridical tribunals that prosecuted heresy and related offences. The Papacy of 1566—1572 was known not only for its focus on halting heresy and worldly abuses within the Church, but also for its focus on improving popular piety in a determined effort to stem the appeal of Protestantism. Pius began his pontificate by giving large alms to the poor, charity, and hospitals, and the pontiff was known for consoling the poor and sick, and supporting missionaries. The activities of these pontiffs coincided with a rediscovery of the ancient Christian catacombs in Rome. In other words, all Protestant doctrinal objections and changes were uncompromisingly rejected. The Council also fostered an interest in education for parish priests to increase pastoral care. Catholic missions Catholic missions were carried to new places beginning with the new , and the established a number of in the Americas and other colonies in order to spread Christianity in the New World and to convert the. At the same time, missionaries such as as well as other , , and were moving into Asia and the Far East. The Portuguese sent missions into Africa. While some of these missions were associated with imperialism and oppression, others notably 's mission to China were relatively peaceful and focused on integration rather than. Galileo before the Holy Office, a 19th-century painting by The , in which came into conflict with the over his support of , is often considered a defining moment in the history of the. In 1610, published his Starry Messenger , describing the surprising observations that he had made with the new. These and other discoveries exposed major difficulties with the understanding of the that had been held since antiquity, and raised new interest in radical teachings such as the theory of. In reaction, many scholars maintained that the motion of the Earth and immobility of the Sun were , as they contradicted some accounts given in the as understood at that time. Galileo's part in the controversies over , astronomy and philosophy culminated in his trial and sentencing in 1633, on a grave suspicion of heresy. Puritans in North America See also: The most famous colonisation by Protestants in the New World was that of English in North America. Unlike the Spanish or French, the English colonists made surprisingly little effort to evangelise the native peoples. The Puritans, or , left England so that they could live in an area with Puritanism established as the exclusive civic religion. Though they had left England because of the suppression of their religious practice, most Puritans had thereafter originally settled in the but found the licentiousness there, where the state hesitated from enforcing religious practice, as unacceptable, and thus they set out for the New World and the hopes of a Puritan utopia. Main articles: , , and The was a wave of religious enthusiasm among Protestants in the American colonies c. It centred on reviving the spirituality of established congregations, and mostly affected , , , German Reformed, , and churches, while also spreading within the slave population. The Second Great Awakening 1800—1830s , unlike the first, focused on the unchurched and sought to instil in them a deep sense of personal salvation as experienced in revival meetings. It also sparked the beginnings of groups such as the , the and the. The began from 1857 and was most notable for taking the movement throughout the world, especially in English speaking countries. Pentecostalism would later lead to the. Restorationism See also: Restorationism refers to the belief that a purer form of Christianity should be restored using the as a model. Churches of the , as seen from the The Russian Orthodox Church held a privileged position in the , expressed in the motto of the late Empire from 1833:. Nevertheless, the in the early 18th century had placed the Orthodox authorities under the control of the. An official titled appointed by the Tsar himself ran the committee which governed the Church between 1721 and 1918: the. The Church became involved in the various campaigns of , and was accused of involvement in. In the case of anti-Semitism and the anti-Jewish pogroms, no evidence is given of the direct participation of the Church, and many Russian Orthodox clerics, including senior hierarchs, openly defended persecuted Jews, at least from the second half of the 19th century. Also, the Church has no official position on Judaism as such. The and other Russian revolutionaries saw the Church, like the Tsarist state, as an. Russian Orthodox Church in the Soviet Union Further information: The Russian Orthodox Church collaborated with the in the see after the October Revolution. This may have further strengthened the Bolshevik animus against the church. After the October Revolution of 7 November 1917 25 October Old Calendar there was a movement within the Soviet Union to unite all of the people of the world under Communist rule see. This included the Eastern European bloc countries as well as the Balkan States. Since some of these Slavic states tied their ethnic heritage to their ethnic churches, both the peoples and their church where targeted by the Soviet. Criticism of atheism was strictly forbidden and sometimes lead to imprisonment. The Soviet Union was the first state to have as an ideological objective the elimination of religion. Toward that end, the Communist regime confiscated church property, ridiculed religion, harassed believers, and propagated atheistic propaganda in the schools. Actions toward particular religions, however, were determined by State interests, and most organised religions were never outlawed. Some actions against Orthodox priests and believers along with included torture being sent to , or. The result of was to transform the Church into a persecuted and martyred Church. In the first five years after the Bolshevik revolution, 28 bishops and 1,200 priests were executed. This included people like the who was at this point a monastic. Along with her murder was Romanov; the Princes , , and ; Grand Duke Sergei's secretary, Fyodor Remez; and , a sister from the Grand Duchess Elizabeth's convent. They were herded into the forest, pushed into an abandoned mineshaft and grenades were then hurled into the mineshaft. Her remains were buried in , in the. Nearly its entire clergy, and many of its believers, were shot or sent to labor camps. Theological schools were closed, and church publications were prohibited. In the period between 1927 and 1940, the number of Orthodox Churches in the Russian Republic fell from 29,584 to fewer than 500. Between 1917 and 1940, 130,000 Orthodox priests were arrested. Father was one of the of this particular period. After Nazi Germany's attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, Joseph Stalin revived the Russian Orthodox Church to intensify patriotic support for the war effort. By 1957 about 22,000 Russian Orthodox churches had become active. But in 1959 Nikita Khrushchev initiated his own campaign against the Russian Orthodox Church and forced the closure of about 12,000 churches. By 1985 fewer than 7,000 churches remained active. In the Soviet Union, in addition to the methodical closing and destruction of churches, the charitable and social work formerly done by ecclesiastical authorities was taken over by the state. As with all private property, Church owned property was confiscated into public use. The few places of worship left to the Church were legally viewed as state property which the government permitted the church to use. After the advent of state funded universal education, the Church was not permitted to carry on educational, instructional activity for children. For adults, only training for church-related occupations was allowed. Outside of sermons during the celebration of the divine liturgy it could not instruct or evangelise to the faithful or its youth. Catechism classes, religious schools, study groups, Sunday schools and religious publications were all illegal and or banned. This persecution continued, even after the death of Stalin until the in 1991. This caused many religious tracts to be circulated as illegal literature or. Since the fall of the Soviet Union there have been many added as Saints from the yoke. Diaspora emigration to the West One of the most striking developments in modern historical Orthodoxy is the dispersion of Orthodox Christians to the West. Emigration from Greece and the Near East in the last hundred years has created a sizable Orthodox diaspora in Western Europe, North and South America, and Australia. In addition, the Bolshevik Revolution forced thousands of Russian exiles westward. As a result, Orthodoxy's traditional frontiers have been profoundly modified. Nonetheless, they remain Eastern Orthodox in their faith and practice. Modern trends in Christian theology Modernism and liberal Christianity Main article: , sometimes called liberal theology, is an umbrella term covering diverse, philosophically informed religious movements and moods within late 18th, 19th and 20th-century Christianity. A further 2,700 Polish priests were executed a quarter of all Polish priests , and 5,350 Polish nuns were either displaced, imprisoned, or executed. Many Catholic laymen and clergy played notable roles in sheltering during , including 1876—1958. The head rabbi of Rome became a Catholic in 1945 and, in honour of the actions the Pope undertook to save Jewish lives, he took the name Eugenio the pope's first name. Though many Protestant church leaders in Germany supported the Nazis' growing anti-Jewish activities, some, such as a Lutheran pastor were strongly opposed to the Nazis. Bonhoeffer was later found guilty in the conspiracy to assassinate Hitler and executed. Second Vatican Council Main article: On 11 October 1962, opened the , the 21st of the Catholic Church. The council is perhaps best known for its instructions that the Mass may be celebrated in the vernacular as well as in Latin. Ecumenism Main article: Ecumenism broadly refers to movements between Christian groups to establish a degree of unity through dialogue. Catholic ecumenism Main article: Over the last century, a number of moves have been made to reconcile the. Although progress has been made, concerns over papal primacy and the independence of the smaller Orthodox churches has blocked a final resolution of the schism. On 30 November 1894, published the Apostolic Letter On the Churches of the East safeguarding the importance and continuance of the Eastern traditions for the whole Church. On 7 December 1965, a Joint Catholic-Orthodox Declaration of Pope Paul VI and the was issued lifting the mutual excommunications of 1054. Some of the most difficult questions in relations with the ancient concern some doctrine i. Filioque, , functional purposes of asceticism, the of God, , , establishment of the , to note but a few as well as practical matters such as the concrete exercise of the claim to papal primacy and how to ensure that ecclesiastical union would not mean mere absorption of the smaller Churches by the Latin component of the much larger Catholic Church the most numerous single religious denomination in the world , and the stifling or abandonment of their own rich theological, liturgical and cultural heritage. With respect to Catholic relations with Protestant communities, certain commissions were established to foster dialogue and documents have been produced aimed at identifying points of doctrinal unity, such as the produced with the in 1999. Pentecostal movement Countries by percentage of Protestants in 1938 and 2010. Pentecostal and denominations fueled much of the growth in Africa and Latin America. The 1904 onwards had its roots in the Holiness movement which had developed in the late 19th century. The Pentecostal revival movement began, out of a passion for more power and a greater outpouring of the Spirit. In 1902, the American evangelists Reuben Archer Torrey and Charles M. Alexander conducted meetings in Melbourne, Australia, resulting in more than 8,000 converts. News of this revival travelled fast, igniting a passion for prayer and an expectation that God would work in similar ways elsewhere. In 1906, the modern Pentecostal Movement was born on in Los Angeles. Pentecostalism in turn inspired the movement within already established denominations. In reaction to these developments, was a movement to reject the radical influences of philosophical humanism, as this was affecting the Christian religion. Especially targeting critical approaches to the interpretation of the Bible, and trying to blockade the inroads made into their churches by atheistic scientific assumptions, the fundamentalists began to appear in various denominations as numerous independent movements of resistance to the drift away from historic Christianity. Over time, the Fundamentalist Evangelical movement has divided into two main wings, with the label Fundamentalist following one branch, while has become the preferred banner of the more moderate movement. Although both movements primarily originated in the English-speaking world, the majority of Evangelicals now live elsewhere in the world. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004 p. New York: Robert Appleton Company. The newly formed Church, within which thus far only those who were and observed the Law of Moses had been admitted, was now thrown open to the uncircumcised Gentiles without. All the more did the law-observing Jews defy the edict of prohibiting circumcision I Macc. The Bulletin of the History of Medicine. Retrieved 24 July 2007. By the end of the second century, the Christian apologist literally, 'defender' of the faith Tertullian complained about the widespread perception that Christians were the source of all disasters brought against the human race by the gods. Croix, Geoffrey Ernest Maurice. There Is No Crime for Those Who Have Christ: Religious Violence in the Christian Roman Empire. University of California Press. The Rise of Christianity. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1996. Greek Resurrection Beliefs and the Success of Christianity. New York: Palgrave Macmillan 2009. Rivington, London, 1845, p. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004 p. Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity. Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew. Sanders Hendrickson, 2002 pp. Sanders Hendrickson, 2002 p. Noll's Turning Points, Baker Academic, 1997 pp. Evans Cambridge University Press, 1970 p. Auwers Leuven University Press, 2003 p. A Brief History of Christianity. Sanders Hendrickson, 2002 p. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture Intervarsity Press, 1988 p. Augustine, De Civitate Dei 22. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture Intervarsity Press, 1988 p. Sanders Hendrickson, 2002 p. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture Intervarsity Press, 1988 p. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture Intervarsity Press, 1988 p. Evans Cambridge University Press, 1970 p. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004 p. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004 p. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004 pp. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004 p. According to the apostolic teaching... Medieval Sourcebook: Banning of Other Religions. Retrieved 23 November 2006. Retrieved 24 April 2010. Review of Church policies towards heresy, including capital punishment see Synod at Saragossa. Archived from on 31 July 2010. Retrieved 6 April 2013. Retrieved 31 August 2017. Retrieved 31 August 2017. A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. The Orthodox Church London. The New York Times. Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the American People. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1972 p. There will be an award of 100,000 rubles for each one hanged. Given at the Chapel of the Romanian Orthodox Church Seminary, The Word online. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. The Early Christian Church 2 vol. The Story of Christianity: Vol. Christian iconography, a study of its origins. A World History of Christianity. Thirsty for God: A Brief History of Christian Spirituality 2nd ed. Rediscovering the New Testament Church. A History of Christianity, Volume 1: Beginnings to 1500 revised ed. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church 2nd ed. Church History in Plain Language 2nd ed.

Christianity from Judaism to Constantine: Crash Course World History #11
Paul and his u followers; Acts 11:26 And when he had found him, he brought him unto Antioch. In reality, the Christianity that Constantine created was little more than a blending of the many belief systems of Europe at the time. To the poor, and to therich encumbered by their caballeros. Christianity wasn't just randomly started. So: they should eat no meat that comes from idol temples, no blood, and no meat of animals that have died. That this is not the beginning of Christianity is further shown by the fact that the connection with the synagogue is still met as something natural. One could debate whether anyone was saved before this time, as the Bible is silent on the issue, but there is simply no other event recorded anywhere in the New Testament which is even a close second to Acts 2 and the Day of Pentecost. Per this perspective it looks like we are dealing with a birth defect which is irreversible, since birth defects can be removed only with difficulty and rarely — if at all.

SQL Server: how to convert datetime to UTC

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PrevDstEnd RangeStart, DstStart RangeEnd, 0 from Dst union all select DstStart RangeStart, DstEnd RangeEnd, 1 from Dst order by RangeStart; Finally, we define a pair of table-valued functions one helper function, and one intended to be called by the user. For example, the following conversion does not return a hexadecimal value of 41. I will share one solution in this post to accomplish this conversion.

Always use in scientific notation. All styles below 100 1 106 107 109 113 130 1 With the exception of styles 20 and 21 Supplementary characters surrogate pairs Starting with SQL Server 2012 11.

The output is: - Explicit conversions require specification of the CAST function or the CONVERT function.

The equivalent class to java. Date instance has no concept of time-zone. This might seem strange if you call toString on a java. Date, because the toString is relative to a time-zone. However that method actually uses Java's default time-zone on the fly to provide the string. The time-zone is not part of the actual state of java. An Instant also does not contain any information about the time-zone. Thus, to convert from an Instant to a local date it is necessary to specify a time-zone. This might be the default zone - ZoneId. Date or it's subclass java. Date unlike JodaStephen's way. This is common with JDBC originated data. Date} and code java. Date date return asLocalDate date, ZoneId. Date or it's subclasses. Date date return asLocalDateTime date, ZoneId. Date or it's subclasses. Date asUtilDate Object date return asUtilDate date, ZoneId. Date from various date objects. Date exactly this class, not a subclass, such as java. Date date instanceof java. Timestamp return new java. Date date; if date instanceof LocalDate return java. Date} or it's subclasses. Date} or it's subclasses. Date it may be overriden by the JDBC driver to avoid timezone problems or unnecessary calculations , otherwise uses the abovementioned method. If you're using Java 8, JodaStephen's answer is obviously the best. MONTH + 1, cal. It is used in a thread-safe way. Now, SimpleDateFormat is reputed to be 'expensive to instantiate' on account of all the internal data structures it needs but you can't share one as a 'singleton' without synchronizing access to it , because it is indeed not thread-safe. A ThreadLocal solution can work if the code 'polluting' the Thread in this was is responsible for the thread's lifecycle... Avoiding SimpleDateFormat is the reason for using javax. So, I rewrote the conversion following Oracle's Java Tutorial in. Date as an intermediate casting to convert between LocalDate and util. Date to get util. Date from LocalDate get the sql. Date first, and then call toLocalDate on sql. Please update your answer to explain how this improves on the other accepted and upvoted answers this question already has. Also, this question is 3 years old, your efforts would be more appreciated by users who have recent unanswered questions.

MySQL 33 - Datetime, Date, Time Data Types
However, if the original time represents an invalid time in the local time zone, the two local time values will not be equal. Includes all yy without century styles and a subset of yyyy with century styles. It elements the AdventureWorksDW database. The HH:MM offset, in the + or - direction, indicates other time zones. Always use in scientific notation. Because objects store a date and time value along with its offset from UTC, they always represent a particular point in time in relationship to UTC. ParseExact clientString, el, CultureInfo. It uses the AdventureWorksDW database. If dateTime corresponds to an invalid time, this method throws an. This value is rounded to the nearest whole number and is then CAST to an int data type.

The Gym Simulator

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This beautiful girl has a date in the gym with her boyfriend. The Gym Simulator The Gym Simulator. When I'm not writing about cheese or my 20-year love affair with Leonardo DiCaprio, I'm listening to The Beatles, watching Harry Potter reruns I'm a proud Slytherin!

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